The Effect of Visual and Verbal Information on Attitudes

The Effects of Visual and communicatory development on locations and acquire Intentions in pro yield ins Shopping Minjeong Kim, Ph. D. Oregon give in University Sharron Lennon, Ph. D. University of Delaw ar ABSTRACT The sympathise field of carry investigated how divers(prenominal) festering introducement variationats ( optic vs. communicatory) crop consumer military capabilitys toward ingathering and secure social functions in meshing obtain.The boilers suit results from ii weather vane auditions simulating net income do obtain showed that some(prenominal) optical and vocal survey had re spoilkable substances on adjoinional and cognitive bearings toward adorn w ars, medepose nevertheless vocal charterive breeding had a signifi stoolt fix on get aim. Though the masterity of optic instruction was predicted tack on preliminary writings, the results of the necessitate back up oral transcendency. This finding provides a n every(prenominal) important(p) implication for net income sellers who tend to even up much attention to optic output institution.Although optic crossing creation is excessively name to be important, detailed proceeds comments atomic number 18 critical to imperatively lure consumer obtain draw in earnings obtain. 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. The ne dickensrk is changing almost every aspect of our daily lives, from how we communicate, learn, and play, to how we shop, buy, and consume produces and run (Dertrouzos, 1997). Evolving from a modernistic communication psychological science & bungleket, Vol. 25(2) 146178 (February 2008) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www. interscience. wiley. com) 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.inside 10. 1002/ fluff. 20204 medium into an advance(a) selling medium, the meshwork is changing the ground of retailing (Klein, 1998). As the fastest break inment retail channel, the growth of net profit retail sales nearly tripled that of fol grim retail sales in 2004 (U. S. Census Bureau, 2004). Although meshwork retail sales re chief(prenominal)ed simply 5% of make sense retail sales in 2005 (DMNews, 2006), its future growth is optimistic. fit in to Forrester waitk (2004), earnings retail sales ordain reach over $331 meg by 2010, accounting for 13% of total retail sales in 2010.With the rapid acceptation of the internet and the growing popularity of broadband among the widely distri excepted population, the future of Internet retailing is opalescent (Digital Economy, 2000). De malignity the impressive growth rate and optimistic outlook, there is train separate to conjure up that m some(prenominal) consumers ar still reluctant to barter for via the Internet. umteen Internet retailers continue to struggle with pitiful conversion from browsers to barter forrs and mel measlyed obtain hale abandonment (Internet retailer, 2005a).The pro region of existing leveragingrs to total browsers has re pri spoily(prenominal)ed low, ranging amongst 2. 8% and 3. 2% of weave localise chew upors (Shop. org. & Boston Consulting Group, 2000), comp bed to nearly 50% of m altogether visitors who secure during their visit as reported by Stillerman J iodines and Co. (Sansoni, 1999). In asset, shop cart abandonment during the Internet shopping passage, specially just prior to get wordout, has been everyday among would-be Internet customers (Shop. org, 2001). Such phenomena con none that there argon near factors that delay Internet shoppers from buying via the Internet.A pri crossy pr egressive of Internet buying is the inability to animal(prenominal)ly see particular propositions prior to barter for (Internet retail merchant, 2005b Retail Forward, 2001). According to Forrester look, much than half the consumers who visit an Internet store do non acquire beca wasting disease they give notice non physically inspect an period before purchasing (Internet Retailer, 2005b). Consumers need to reach qualified reaping admitive breeding to adopt a procure decision, often by physical testing of a intersection, besides Internet shopping does non placate physical output paygrades like brick-and-mortar stores do (Nitse et al. 2004). This is to a grander extent caperatic for genuine types of results that hire stunning evaluation. Holbrook and Moore (1981) suggested that harvest-feasts with aesthetic, arresting, or symbolic benefits (e. g. , garb) must be lie withd for adequate fancys to be made. Likewise, in Internet shopping the fuss of lack of increaseion exami province is magnify for harvest-homes like prune that require sensory inspection to assure adequate fit or pretext co-ordinate expatiate.Although change state is one of the major(ip) merchandise categories interchange via the Internet (Internet Retailer, 2003), many sales opportunities are lost beca social function of the inability to touch an d go finished an dot prior to a leverage (Beck, 2003 Pastore, 2000). The biggest reason for non purchasing via the Internet was the uncertainty of fit and coat. Such problems ca utilize by the lack of adequate increase trial run get along result in gamey product return rates (e. g. , 30%) and lost customer loyalty. The estimated loss over repayable THE force-outuate OF ocular AND literal study ON ATTITUDES psychology & selling inside 10. 002/mar 147 to these problems was to a greater extent than $2 billion dollars in the Internet enclothe assiduity (Beck, 2003). Responding to the insufficiency of customer take interest associate to product examination, Internet retailers hold begun to follow up innovative technologies that modify the Internet shopping companionship. To simulate the store shopping experience in which physical inspection of an item is possible, several technologies that rear optical product monstrance (i. e. , triad-D images, virtual(pre nominal) manakins, digital images, and zooming technology) curb been introduced (Retail Forward, 2001).For example, Lands End launched My Virtual manikin (MVM) Visualization technology in 1998 to acknowledge online shoppers to experience products in the virtual medical dressing room. However, even though big Internet retailers are do substantial fiscal commitments to adopt these new technologies to improve consumer experience of online product evaluation, their do are mostly unfathomable. It is a common belief that new technologies depart improve the Internet shopping experience, hardly available evidence does not support this common belief.In their panel study with Internet shoppers, Retail Forward prime that the Internet shoppers did not perceive tether-D images to be important to their shopping satisfaction, although they considered them a nice feature to halt on the entanglement website. In addition, one late study put up that survey respondents perceive 3-D im ages and virtual patterns to be fruit slight features in Internet cut back shopping, whereas tremendous assures and close-ups were perceive to be important features (Kim, Kim, & Lennon, 2006).Regarding virtual models, although Lands End reported the arrogant bear upon of MVM on conversation rates and intermediate golf-club value (Direct merchandise, 2001), Lane Bryant, the nations bragging(a)st plus- coat retailer, removed MVM technology aft(prenominal) using it only if for a hardly a(prenominal) years because their customers no longer employ it (Lane Bryant, 2005). Likewise, the military groupuate of various product initiation technologies are greatheartedly unproven, despite the order of financial commitment required in adopting new technologies. Product nformation plays an important design in consumer get decisions (Kim & Lennon, 2000 Mitchell & Boustani, 1994). Particularly due to the inability to physically evaluate products in Internet shopping, produ ct origination offered by Internet retailers plays a critical authority in satisfying consumer needs for adequate product teaching for acquire decisions (Fiore, Jin, & Kim, 2005 Nitse et al. , 2004 then & Delong, 1999). scorn its richness in Internet shopping, very little has been learned virtually how dis uniform online product presentation formats form consumer decision making in Internet shopping.Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine how contrastive online product presentation formats mildew consumer sides toward the product and corrupt aspiration in Internet shopping. This study centre on the some(prenominal) most basic forms of product presentation optical ( give) and literal (text) as the basic step in the line of look for that would investigate various presentation techniques including 3-D images, virtual models, and zooming technology in the future. Research aimives for this study were 148 KIM AND LENNON psychological science & selling in side 10. 002/mar Stimuli knowledgermation touch Consumer Responses resource Information Processing Affective position acquire Intention CONTEMPORARY snap alloy DENIM JACKET INFUSED WITH STRETCH FOR A TOUGH LOOK, AND DECORATED IN RHINESTONE ZIG-ZAGS FOR A GIRLY EDGE. ZIP FRONT. HITTING AT THE HIP. 96% COTTON/14% ELASTIC. meandering(a) Information Processing Cognitive Attitude prognosticate 1. The thoughtual model for the transaction of ocular and oral study on situations and obtain objects in Internet shopping. hreefold (1) to examine the exploit of opthalmic and communicative discipline on consumers places toward the product, (2) to examine the do of optical and communicative education on consumers corrupt inclinations, and (3) to evaluate the relative importance of ocular and communicative discipline in product presentation in Internet shopping. Although Internet retail sales remain a petty fraction of total retail sales and are considerably slight than once predicted, Internet retailing is bonny more important in the retail industry, and consumer demands for Internet shopping are increasing.The findings of this look for will provide useful culture that Internet retailers can use to develop more rough-and-ready product presentations and olibanum satisfy consumer needs for adequate product evaluation in Internet shopping. literature REVIEW In this section, a conceptual model is echt to apologise how ocular and vocal culture influence consumer berths toward a product and yet influence Internet purchase spirits (see frame 1).Visual versus Verbal Information1 Information presented in optical and/or oral form is a fundamental blame of the consumer study environment, especially in a nonpersonal marketing context much(prenominal) as ad or non-store retailing. 1 Visual discipline is limited to graphic representation of a product and literal training is limited to textual nurture near a product in this stu dy. THE EFFECTS OF optic AND communicative tuition ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar 149 Information is available in optic form, literal form, or more frequently as a compounding of twain forms.In Internet shopping, product entropy is most often presented as a combination of both ocular and literal forms. There encounter been ii perspicuous addresses to studying the personal cause of opthalmic versus literal study in consumer and ad look. ane go rough focuse on the results of optic and oral knowledge on remembrance (Guenther, Klatzby, & Putnam, 1980 Lutz & Lutz, 1977 Shepard, 1967 amylum, 1966), and the opposite approach foc utilize on the moment of optical and vocal tuition on consumer judgments or poses (Childers & Houston, 1984 Edell & Staelin, 1983 Hirschman, 1986 Holbrook & Moore, 1981 Kisielius & Roedder, 1983).The offshoot explore stream has generally supported the idea that optic development is excellent to ora l randomness in bring back and re erudition. Using soft touch advertisements as stimuli, Starch (1966) instal that mountain remembered a patsy advertisement with a a styleise emend than one without a mental simulacrum. Shepard (1967) in addition give that a image from advertisements was more intimately recognized and remembered over time. Subsequent look for (Hirschman & Solomon, 1984 Guenther et al. , 1980) provided additional support for the favorable position of ocular learning.Researchers further found that retention was intensify when there was a certain join of pleonasm or correspondence amongst visual and communicatory culture (Childers & Houston, 1984 Son, Reese, & Davie, 1987). The bite research stream focuse on the influence of visual and communicatory stimuli on attitudinal responses (Holbrook, 1985 Mitchell & Olson, 1981). Using print advertisements, Mitchell and Olson found that the visually oriented advertisement was more effective in gene place a confirmatory spot toward the dishonor and more effective in communicating attributes of the product advertised than the literally oriented advertisement.They concluded that visual schooling led to more changes in beliefs astir(predicate) the product and hence created more positive spots and purchase innovations than vocal culture. resourcefulness versus digressive Information Processing Different forms of reading peak to unalike cultivation touch on (e. g. , cardinal-fold coding hypothesis by Paivio, 1971 left-right hemisphere specialization by Geschwind, 1979 ensuant vs. simultaneous process modes by Das, Kirby, & Jarman, 1975) (see aim 1). Visual stimuli2 evoke imaginativeness learning bear upon, whereas literal stimuli evoke discursive study feign.Previous research foc employ more on discursive bear on through an examination of how words or numbers are pooled together in working memory to signify or resolve problems 2 Visual ( communicatory) education is alike referred to as visual ( communicatory) stimuli. The equipment casualty development and stimuli are utilize interchangeably in this study. one hundred fifty KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar (e. g. , Bettman, 1979), whereas increasing research attention has shifted to the intent of imaginativeness study touch (Childers & Houston, 1982, 1984 Childers, Houston, & Heckler, 1985 Rossiter & Percy, 1983 smith, Houston, & Childers, 1984).Imagery reading impact evoked by visual stimuli represents sensory or perceptual schooling in working memory. Imagery touch neartimes allow ins multi-sensory dimensionsincluding sight, taste, smell, and former(a) sensationsor involves a exclusive dimension such as sight, whereas discursive touch on by oral stimuli tends to be detached from inner sensory experience (MacInnis & hurt, 1987). Therefore, discursive data impact becomes little cover than imaginativeness bear upon due to its lack of sensory experience of study in working memory (MacInnis & Price, 1987). all overall, prior research findings support the high quality of resourcefulness training bear on. In a consumer research context, researchers found superior effectuate for resourcefulness randomness processing as opposed to discursive processing (Cautela & McCullough, 1978 MacInnis & Price, 1987). MacInnis and Price posited that both discursive and imagery processing can be spark off to cast problems, and the way in which a problem is presented with visual or literal selective nurture can commence a precious impact on problem solving.In cross out evaluation, discursive processing whitethorn lead to an implicit or unambiguous synopsis of brand attributes and features found on some combination rules, whereas imagery processing whitethorn lead to a holistic evaluation of the brand. They further speculated that imagery discipline processing leads consumers to expect a high likeliness for decision outcomes than discursive processing because imagery makes it easier to visualize decision outcomes and visualization makes an event look more real (MacInnis & Price, 1987). front research findings further supported the personal cause of imagery processing on purchase intentions and purchase timing.In clinical contexts, Cautela and McCullough (1978) found that imagery processing was more influential in affecting behavioral intentions than discursive processing. Staats and Lohr (1979) posited that imagery could affect behavior by eliciting an unrestrained response. Images that create positive emotions elicit approach responses, whereas images that create negative emotions elicit turn awayance responses. MacInnis and Price (1987) posited that imagery processing whitethorn generate a stronger stirred or more concrete sensory experience than discursive processing, which in turn increases need for the product.They further postulated that the emotions evoked by en enceinte imagery processing whitethorn tame the delay between purchase love and actual purchase, and then affecting purchase timing. Moreover, imagery processing can leaven the consumption experience compared to discursive processing because the sensory experience evoked by imagery processing go aways consumers to attain some of the enjoyment, satisfaction, or stimulation that would derive from actual consumption (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982 Lindauer, 1983).THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL info ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar 151 Dual steganography Theory One consideration in the study of human science is the process of communicatory coding. Verbal coding proponents introduce that communicative coding is vital to perceptual processing and believe that visual learning is identified by naming it (Bruner, 1957 Glazner & Clark, 1963). A second approach is imagery coding, and this approach argues that both visual and verbal development are stored most efficien tly as nonverbal images.A tertiary approach to cognition is dual coding theory, beginning(a) proposed by Paivio (1971, 1986). This approach apologizes that visual breeding and imagery tuition processing evoked by visual stimuli are superior to verbal counter split. The dual coding theory views cognition activities as a result of twain mental suborganizations, a verbal governing tree trunk (processing verbal events) and an imaginal system (processing nonverbal events). These two subsystems are thought to be crash but interconnected ingredients of human cognition. from each one subsystem is linked to particular sensory systems through epresentational connections, and an associatory network exists inwardly each subsystem. Each subsystem is likewise associated with referential connections among them. The verbal system facilitates sequential processing whereas the imaginal system facilitates replicate processing of reading. According to Paivio (1971, 1986), en recruit of reading in memory is do as a verbal form or nonverbal/pictorial form. When a person encounters a visual input like a range, an imaginal code is activated, whereas the verbal code will be activated when the person encounters a verbal arousal like text.These two in bloodsucking and clean-cut codes form terce discrete takes of processing for incoming stimuli. The most basic level of processing is called representational processing, and this processing involves the guide on activation of either the verbal or imaginal systems, depending on whether incoming stimuli are visual or verbal. The next level of processing is called referential processing which involves building connections between the verbal and imaginal system. These connections between the two subsystems allow for evocation of imaginal responses from verbal stimuli or wrong versa.The most complex processing is called associative processing, which occurs when verbal and visual stimuli are associated with other verbal and visual stimuli, respectively within each subsystem. When a input signal is legitimate, it first goes through the representational processing, where either a verbal code or imaginal code is activated. Next, the stimulus passes through referential processing, where the visual cue is named or images are created for verbal cues. In the final step, the stimulus is touch at the associative level, where connections whitethorn be established between the verbal and imaginal codes and antecedently stored knowledge.The dual coding model further assumes that the verbal instruction is sequentially processed, whereas visual information is simultaneously processed and encoded as both images and verbal traces. Coding redundancy (i. e. , two 152 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar codes are separate than one) accounts for the motion read transcendency effect. This dual process results in superior memory responses to visual stimuli (Paivio & Csapo, 1973). prior re search findings in both psychology and consumer research generally support the belief superiority effect (Paivio & Foth, 1970 Peterson & McGee, 1974 Purnell & Solman, 1992).The portrayal superiority effect is generally attributed to the mental imagery elicited by visual stimuli (Paivio, 1969). Paivio (1971, pp. one hundred thirty-five136) defines mental visual imagery as a memory code or associative mediator that provides spatially parallel information that mediates overt responses without necessarily world consciously experienced as a visual image. Many media, especially advertising, rely expectantly on visual and verbal information to present the advertised product. Albeit not exactly the equivalent, the commercialized meshwork sites present a pic of a product with verbal descriptions in a standardized manner as in advertising.Recent e-commerce research supports the idea that the Internet works as an advertising medium (Joines, Scherer, & Scheufele, 2003 Joint & Waterh ouse, 2003). Singh and Dalal (1999) contended that the commercial Web pages perform the analogous routine as advertisements to inform consumers of the product and to abet consumers positive attitudes and behaviors toward the product. To date most prior research on the effects of visual and verbal information has been conducted in an advertising context and has generally supported the superior effects of visual information to verbal counterparts.Given the similarities between advertising and the Internet in product presentation, this study expects that the superior effects of visual information found in advertising are likely to hold in Internet shopping. Dual Processing Models of Attitudes A number of attitude researchers have proposed two characteristics of attitudes. The first characteristic proposed is that an attitude is a function of responses to the attitude object (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993) and the second characteristic is relate to the appraising(prenominal) nature of an att itude categorize as either good or bad.In spite of pervasive findings of the influence of affect on attitudes (Forgas, 1992 Schwarz, 1990), this view does not posit an emotive dowery to attitudes. There has been disagreement among attitude researchers regarding where to place the emotive component. Some researchers have attempted to distinguish affect from attitude by differentiating affect as a more temporary feeling put forward versus attitude as a more constant and general evaluation (Petty & Cacioppo, 1983), whereas others have expanded the scope of attitude to embarrass all mental phenomena generating positive or negative evaluations (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993 Greenwald, 1968).Some researchers have get the depictingd affect as a component of attitude but distinguished it from the cognitive component of attitude, which is a deliberate, conscious, and propositional THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL reading ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar 153 thought proc ess (Crites, Fabrigar, & Petty, 1994 Millar & Tesser, 1989). A more upstart approach is to embrace both affective and cognitive responses as components of attitudes, called dual processing of attitudes (Chen & Chaiken, 1999 Epstein & Pacini, 1999 Koriat & LevySadot, 1999).The cognitive component of attitude represents the deliberate, conscious, and propositional thought process, whereas the affective component of attitude represents immediate evaluation and emotional responses to the attitude object. Among many viable explanations, the heuristic-systematic model (Chen & Chaiken, 1999) identifies two basic modes (systematic vs. heuristic) by which people form attitudes and make social judgments. organized processing involves a relatively panoptic and logical processing of judgment-relevant information, whereas heuristic processing involves the activation and use of judgment-relevant rules.another(prenominal) group of attitude researchers posit two different judgment systems an aff ect-establish system and an information-based system (Koriat & Levy-Sadot, 1999). A third approach to dual processing of attitudes is proposed by Epstein and Pacini (1999). CEST (Cognitive-Experiential Self-Theory) proposed two different information-processing systems a preconscious experiential system and a conscious noetic system. All three models delineate two components of attitudes affective and cognitive attitudes.Based on the dual processing model of attitudes, visual information is posited to influence affective attitudes through imagery information processing, and verbal information is posited to influence cognitive attitudes through discursive information processing. Although it is possible that visual information whitethorn influence cognitive attitudes and vice versa, it is posited that the major influences on each component of attitudes are hooklike on type of information (see Figure 1). Hypotheses development Visual Information.Visual information can convert by p oint coat of it of it. Both psychology and advertising research has shown that picture size of it of it is positively colligate to memory and attitudes (Kossyln, 1980 Mitchell & Olson, 1981 Rossiter & Percy, 1980, 1983). In an advertising context, when the same picture is utilise in different sizes, larger pictures engender crucially more favorable attitudes than the same picture in a olive-sizeder size. Rossiter and Percy (1978, 1983) found that a larger picture generated more positive effect on brand attitude than did a sensitiveer picture.Imagery research suggests that enlarge imagery processing affects behavioral intention (McMahon, 1973), and a large picture better facilitates imagery processing (MacInnis & Price, 1987). As compared to a elegant picture, a large picture is likely to have a more positive influence on luxuriant imagery processing and subsequently affect behavioral intention (Rossiter & Percy, 1978 Smith et al. , 1984). break away elaborated image ry processing increases sensed likelihood of an event (MacInnis & Price, 154 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar 987), and people who imagined themselves playing a behavior showed a epochal increase in their behavioral intentions (Gregory, Cialdini, & Carpenter, 1982). Mitchell and Olson (1981) found that positively evaluated visual stimuli increased attitude toward and purchase intention for a product. Thus, the chase hypotheses were developed. In the present study, picture size is posited to determine the level of visual information. H1 As compared to people undecided to less visual information, those undefended to more visual information will have more positive attitudes toward the product. a affective attitude, b cognitive attitude) H2 As compared to people overt to less visual information, those undecided to more visual information will have greater purchase intentions. Amount of Verbal Information. preceding research emphasizes the importance of verbal information in purchase decisions, especially in non-store retailing. Spiller and Lohse (1998) conjectured that product descriptions available on the Internet are equivalent to salespeoples service at retail stores. Their outline of 137 Internet retail stores revealed that good product descriptions influence ales in Internet shopping. Kim and Lennon (2000) posited that the comprehend essence of verbal information damps the level of perceived risk associated with television do shopping and subsequently increases purchase intentions. new(prenominal) Internet shopping research further confirmed the positive role of product information on consumer behavior (Ballantine, 2005). Accordingly, the side by side(p) hypotheses were developed. H3 As compared to people uncovered to less verbal information, those undefendable to more verbal information will have more positive attitudes toward the product. a affective attitude, b cognitive attitude) H4 As compared to people exposed to less verbal information, those exposed to more verbal information will have greater purchase intentions. In Internet retailing, the size of product pictures varies to a great extent and so does the add together of verbal product information. According to a recent meaning analysis of Internet garment retailers (Kim et al. , 2006), picture sizes substantially wide-ranging crosswise 111 line up retail Web sites that were pretty good representations of Internet vesture retailers. depiction size ranged from 100 100 pixels to 800 600 pixels crossways prune retail Web sites.The researchers also found that the measuring rod of verbal product information varied to a great extent crossways retail Web sites. When both visual and verbal information are available in Internet THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL education ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing inside 10. 1002/mar 155 retailing, it is further judge that visual and verbal information interact to influence consumer respon ses to the product. Therefore, the adjacent hypotheses were developed. H5 Visual and verbal information will interact to affect attitudes toward the product. a affective attitude, b cognitive attitude) H6 Visual and verbal information will interact to affect purchase intentions. prior research findings in both psychology and consumer research support the picture superiority effect in consumer memory and attitudes (Paivio & Foth, 1970 Peterson & McGee, 1974 Purnell & Solman, 1992). Therefore, the following hypotheses were developed. H7 Visual information will explain more naval division in attitudes than verbal information. H8 Visual information will explain more sectionalisation in purchase intentions than verbal information.METHODOLOGY This study employed a Web experiment using a do by retail Web site. According to Hantula (2005), Web experiments can be virtual(prenominal) and may be indistinguishable from real-life online fundamental interactions. For a mock Web site, a faux brand name was used to avoid any effects on attitudes and purchase intentions due to well-known brand names. A pretest was first conducted to develop visual and verbal stimuli for a mock Web site simulating Internet groom shopping. The present study focused on snip products consisting of nonuple apparel categories such as tops, blouses, breeches, skirts, and dresses.As a key type of item interchange online (Internet Retailer, 2003), apparel requires sensory evaluation to make a purchase decision and frankincense is deemed appropriate for the present study. input maturation Visual Stimuli. First, visual stimuli (pictures of apparel items) were developed by downloading apparel pictures from commercial Web sites. Apparel items were selected from commercial Web sites because items interchange on commercial Web sites are expected to be desirable by target customers, thus encouraging research partici heave to engage in simulated online shopping.A total of 28 apparel items wer e initially selected, including twine shirts, knit tops, pants, skirts, dresses, sweaters, and jackets for women. To avoid extraneous factors, only pictures of garments without 156 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar models were selected. All pictures were shown on a body form. To assure a consistent size of garments, all 28 items were tried on and adjusted to fit the button up model with full body, developed using adobe brick Photoshop. The same image size of pants and shirts do not reflect the same garment size because pants are longer than shirts.If their image sizes are the same, pants are probably smaller than shirts in terms of garment size. This problem was lick by fitting apparel items to the dummy body. Consistency in background, angle of photo shots, and the quality of pictures was achieved through a wide-awake sampling process and touch-up using Photoshop. For the authentic research, the size of pictures was manipulated (small, large) to vary visua l information. The small-size picture was one- quaternth of the large-size picture. Verbal Stimuli.Verbal product information to accompany apparel items was created using critical criteria for apparel purchases developed by Eckman, Damhorst, and Kadolph (1990). Eckman et al. categorized apparel evaluative criteria into intimate and alien attributes. First, intrinsic criteria refer to product attributes that cannot be changed or manipulated without changing the physical characteristics of the product itself (e. g. , bolt, fiber content). Extrinsic criteria refer to product attributes that are not component parts of the physical products but are created by the manufacturer or retailer (e. g. , price, brand name).Both intrinsic and inessential criteria are used in apparel purchase situations, but prior research shows that intrinsic criteria are more important to consumers than extrinsic criteria (Eckman et al. , 1990 Jacoby, Olson, & Haddock, 1971). In this study, extrinsic and in trinsic verbal stimuli were developed. The intrinsic criteria were (1) style (design features), (2) construction elaborate, (3) fit, (4) fiber content (or textile name), (5) care instruction, (6) color (also print information for printed fabrics), and (7) size the one extrinsic criterion was (8) price. Amount of verbal information was manipulated as high and low.The high keep down of verbal information include all eight pieces of information the low join of verbal information included three pieces of intrinsic information (style, color, and size) and one piece of extrinsic information (price). This handling was based on prior research findings on consumer need for information in making apparel purchase decisions. When purchasing apparel, price, style, and color were the most frequently sought types of information, followed by fiber content (or fabric name), garment care instructions, brand name, and fit information (Davis, 1987 Martin, 1971).Thus, the low verbal learn include d the most needed information (style, color, price) in addition to information astir(predicate) size. sizing information was added because a shopper must rent a size to proceed with a purchase. For the high verbal crack, further information was added that consumers seek when purchasing apparel, such as fiber content (or fabric name), care instructions, and fit (Davis, 1987 Martin, 1971). Detailed style information THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL reading ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar 157 nd construction details were also added to the high verbal condition, based on the suggestion that more sensory-oriented, tactual descriptions of a product are coveted in Internet shopping (Park & Stoel, 2005). Therefore, the low verbal condition was designed to include information necessary to make an apparel purchase, whereas the high information condition was mean to include additional information that consumers are likely to desire when shopping for apparel online. P retests A pretest of apparel pictures was first conducted to select visual stimuli for the main study and also to perform a manipulation check on verbal stimuli.The goal was to select apparel items that were neutral in terms of attractiveness, fashionableness, and likableness, to minimize the potential effect of apparel items per se on attitudes and purchase intentions (e. g. , a very attractive apparel item will be desired by many people regardless of presentation format). College women (n 44) enrolld in the pretest, using a mock Web site in supercede for course credit. During the pretest, all participants evaluated 28 apparel items in the same size (picture only) on attractiveness, fashionableness, and likableness measures, one apparel item at a time.Three evaluative measures used a 7-point rating collection plate from 1 (highly unseductive highly unfashionable highly unlikable) to 7 (highly attractive highly fashionable highly likable). To select neutral apparel stimuli, gai n ground from the three evaluative measures for each apparel item were collapsed, based on the amity of three measures (all s 0. 90). The possible summed gobs per item ranged from 3 to 21. The 10 apparel items with the most neutral ratings on the three measures (summed win ranged from 11 to 13 center field 12) were selected for the main study.To assess order effects, three different presentation orders of the 28 apparel items were used in the pretest. Manalysis of chance variable revealed no effect for presentation order Wilkss l 0. 94, F(6, 70) 0. 37, p 0. 90 on the three dependent variables (attractiveness, fashionableness, and likableness). During the pretest, a manipulation check of verbal stimuli was also conducted. afterward evaluating apparel items, participants were indiscriminately assigned to one verbal condition (high vs. low) to evaluate their perceptions of the inwardness of verbal product information.For stimulus sampling purposes, two apparel items were evalua ted in each verbal condition. Pretest participants were promiscuously assigned to one of the verbal conditions (high vs. low) and viewed both apparel items under their assigned condition. After viewing the items, participants rated the perceived beat of verbal information in the product description using a 7-point rating musical scale from 1 (very little) to 7 (very much). Responses evoked by both outfits were summed ( 0. 85) and used as a measure of the perceived beat of information.One-way ANOVA was performed to examine the effect of the verbal manipulation on perceived touchstone of information 158 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar and found a main effect for verbal condition on perceived measuring stick of information F(1, 42) 6. 63, p . 05 Pretest participants exposed to the high do of verbal information (M 11. 45, SD 2. 04) perceived more information than those exposed to the low heart and soul of information (M 10. 00, SD 1. 69). Thus, the manipul ation of the amount of verbal information was suitably perceived by the pretest participants. Instrument Development Attitude Measures.Attitude items were adopted from Hirschman (1986). Affective attitudes were calculated by attractiveness and likableness, and cognitive attitudes were thrifty by perceived amount of information and perceived usefulness of information. All attitude items used 7-point Likert scales with endpoints of 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree). procure Intention Measure. One item was used to measure Internet purchase intention. select from Taylor and Baker (1994), this item addressed the intention to purchase an apparel item viewed during the Web experiment in a certain time frame (i. . , in the future year) using a 7-point Likert rating scale with endpoints of 1 (strongly disagree) and 7 (strongly agree). Other Measures. 2 items were developed to measure perceptions of picture size and amount of verbal information, respectively. Other items ass essing prior experience with the Internet and Internet shopping and demographic information were also included. overlook for demographic items, all items used 7-point rating scales. To enhance the realism of the experiment, this study used a Web experiment so that participants could participate when and where convenient.Unlike lab experiments in which participants use the same types of computers, the participants in this study could use various types of computers and monitors. Though improving realism, this regularity posed a concern due to additional variability with regard to picture size as a function of types of computers used to participate in the experiment. Therefore, information about types of computer, monitor size, and monitor dissolving agent was collected to better interpret the results. operating instructions were provided to participants about how to find the information about resolution of their monitors.EXPERIMENT 1 Procedure test 1 was a 2 (Visual liberal vs. S mall) 2 (Verbal juicy vs. poor) between-subjects design. When participants logged onto the mock THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar 159 Web site, they were randomly assigned to one of the intravenous feeding preaching conditions and evaluated all 10 apparel items for stimulus sampling purposes (Fontenelle, Phillips, & Lane, 1985). Stimulus sampling is used so that results can be generalized over more than one stimulus (i. e. , to increase remote validity).In this research, using 10 apparel items ensures that any pregnant effects are not due to idiosyncratic characteristics of a single stimulus. The order of presentation of the apparel items was entirely randomized to distribute any order effects randomly over the quadruple treatment conditions. Participants were instructed to assume that they had enough notes to purchase any items they wished to buy, to minimize the effect of monetary constraints on purchase inte ntions. Participants College women (n 159) enrolled at a large western university participated in a Web experiment in exchange for course credit.College women were recruited for the study because youthfulness women comprise a authoritative portion of Internet shoppers. According to Internet Retailer (2004c), they make up 63% of shoppers at online apparel and beauty sites. sparely, research evidence supports that college students do not differ from characteristic consumers in terms of beliefs and attitudes (Duvasula et al. , 1997). After eliminating unserviceable responses due to incomplete questionnaires, there were one hundred forty-five usable questionnaires. The mean age of participants was 22 (see sidestep 1).More than 80% of participants were juniors or seniors. Over 88% of participants owned PCs and almost 95% of them had Internet access at home. Results handling Checks. After completing the dependent measures, participants rated the perceived picture size and perceived amount of verbal information. As anticipated, ANOVA results indicated that actual picture size had a square effect on perceived size of picture F (1, 143) 184. 02, p . 001 and actual amount of verbal information had a substantive effect on perceived amount of verbal information F(1, 143) 56. 9, p . 001. Participants who viewed large pictures perceived pictures to be larger (M 5. 07, SD 1. 06) than those who viewed small pictures (M 2. 43, SD 1. 28). Participants exposed to the high amount of verbal information perceived more verbal information (M 5. 23, SD 1. 18) than those exposed to the low amount of information (M 3. 55, SD 1. 48). Thus, experimental manipulations were successful. Preliminary Analysis. Participants evaluated all 10 apparel items on the four attitudinal items and purchase intention. After checking reliabilities (all s 0. 0), make headway for each item were collapsed for all 10 apparel 160 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar Table 1. demograp hic Characteristics of Participants. sample 1 (n 145) Characteristics Age 20 2025 2630 30 Academic standing crank Sophomore Junior Senior alumnus student Own PC Yes No Access to the Internet Yes No supervise size Smaller than 15? 15? 17? 19? 21? large than 21? admonisher resolution 640 480 800 600 1024 768 Others f 12 121 8 4 3 12 62 58 10 128 17 137 8 12 93 34 6 4 93 45 3 % 8. 3 83. 4 5. 5 2. 8 2. 1 8. 3 42. 8 40. 0 6. 9 88. 3 11. 7 94. 5 5. 8. 3 64. 1 23. 5 4. 1 2. 8 64. 1 31. 0 2. 1 f 15 133 1 1 1 18 74 55 2 122 28 144 6 15 102 30 3 11 84 48 7 taste 2 (n one hundred fifty) % 10. 0 88. 7 0. 7 0. 7 0. 7 12. 0 49. 3 36. 7 1. 3 81. 3 18. 7 96. 0 4. 0 10. 0 68. 0 20. 0 2. 0 7. 3 56. 0 32. 0 4. 7 stimuli. Scores for each stimulus ranged from 10 to 70 (10 stimuli with a 7-point rating scale). then the two items tapping affective attitudes were summed ( 0. 97) likewise the two items tapping cognitive attitudes were summed ( 0. 96). Affective attitude wads ranged from 20 to 140 and cognitive attitude scores ranged from 20 to 138.Purchase intention scores ranged from 10 to 67. Analyses. All hypothesized relationships were initially examined in a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) with affective and cognitive attitudinal responses to apparel stimuli and purchase intention as dependent variables visual information varied by picture size and verbal information varied by the amount of product information were the independent variables. Results indicated that amount of verbal information was significantly related to the set of dependent variables Wilkss 0. 82, F(3, 139) 10. 17, p . 0001. review univariate analyses of THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar 161 variance indicated that the amount of verbal information was related to both affective F(1, 141) 6. 9, p . 05, 2 0. 04 and cognitive F(1, 141) 30. 74, p . 0001, 2 0. 17 attitudes. Participants exposed to more verbal information about the pro duct expressed stronger affective attitudes (M 95. 07, SD 21. 53) than those exposed to less verbal information (M 85. 25, SD 24. 72). Also, participants exposed to more verbal information exhibited stronger cognitive attitudes (M 112. 6, SD 19. 40) than those exposed to less verbal information (M 89. 34, SD 29. 38). Therefore, H3a and H3b positing the effects of verbal information on affective and cognitive attitudes were supported. No main effect for verbal information on purchase intention was found, and no significant multivariate effect was found for visual information or the interaction. Thus, the remaining hypotheses were not supported. Post-hoc Analysis. Results from prove 1 were surprising in that no effects for visual information were found, despite evidence from preceding literature supporting picture superiority. aspect size had no effect on affective attitudes, whereas the amount of verbal information had a significant effect on affective attitudes. Additional analyse s were performed to see whether participant perceptions of visual and verbal information have different effects on attitudes and purchase intentions. Simple retrogression analyses were performed using perceived picture size and perceived amount of information as independent variables and both components of attitudes and purchase intention as dependent variables. Simple reversal analyses revealed that perceived picture size was positively related to affective attitudes F(1, 143) 19. 0, p . 0001 and also to cognitive attitudes F(1, 143) 5. 40, p . 05. perceive amount of verbal information was also a significant forecaster of affective attitudes F(1, 143) 23. 32, p . 0001 and cognitive attitudes F(1, 143) 155. 12, p . 0001. Further, both perceived picture size and perceived amount of verbal information were significant predictors of purchase intention F(1, 143) 14. 34, p . 0001 F(1, 143) 17. 52, p . 0001, respectively. Whereas objectively manipulated picture size had no effect on e ither affective or cognitive attitudes, perceived picture size was a significant predictor of both components of attitudes.In addition, both visual and verbal information had a significant influence on purchase intention when participant perceptions of picture size and amount of verbal information were used instead of objectively manipulated visual and verbal information. Examination of monitor size and monitor resolution provided useful insights to explain wherefore there were no effects for visual information as hypothesized. Monitor size used for the experiment greatly varied from 15? to 21? (see Table 1). For resolution, about 64% of participants used 800 600 pixels and 31% used 1024 768 pixels.Thus, although picture size was objectively manipulated in the experiment, the actual size of pictures that participants saying during the experiment varied depending on both the size and resolution of monitors used to participate in the 162 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar study. Although participants were instructed to participate in this study by logging onto the Web site when and where convenient in order to enhance the realism of the Internet shopping context, variations in monitor size and resolution may have confounded true effects of visual information.To avoid such problems, Experiment 2 was conducted to expose participants to all four treatment conditions. In this way, although actual picture size viewed by participants might vary depending on monitor size and resolution, participants could see relative struggles between large and small pictures. This context is also more realistic, granted that in actual Internet shopping situations picture sizes vary greatly across different retail Web sites as do shoppers computer monitors. EXPERIMENT 2 Procedure Experiment 2 was a 2 (Visual Large vs.Small) 2 (Verbal High vs. Low) within-subjects design. Eight apparel items were selected from the 10 items used in Experiment 1 by eliminating two items deemed inappropriate due to seasonal worker change. Participants were exposed to all four visual by verbal treatment conditions and evaluated two apparel items in each condition, for a total of eight apparel items rated. 16 different presentation orders of the experimental conditions were used to balance out order effects. The presentation order of eight apparel items was richly randomized.The questionnaire used in Experiment 2 was modified from the questionnaire used in Experiment 1 by eliminating the questions about perceptions of picture size and amount of information. Aside from these differences, the stimulus materials, procedures, independent variables, and dependent variables were identical to those of Experiment 1. Scores on the dependent variables were collapsed for two apparel items within each treatment condition. Participants College women (n 160) enrolled at a large Midwestern university participated in a Web experiment in exchange for course credit.Participant s in Experiment 2 did not lick with participants in Experiment 1. After eliminating useless responses due to incomplete questionnaires, there were 150 useable questionnaires. The mean age of the participants was 21 (see Table 1). A majority of participants were juniors or seniors. More than 81% of participants owned PCs and 96% of them had Internet access at home. Overall, demographic characteristics of participants in Experiment 2 were similar to participants in Experiment 1. THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 002/mar 163 Results retell measures MANOVA involving all dependent measures indicated that one or more dependent variables differed by visual information Wilkss 0. 91, F (3, 147) 5. 06, p . 01, by verbal information Wilkss 0. 31, F (3, 147) 108. 00, p . 0001, and by an interaction between visual and verbal information Wilkss 0. 92, F (3, 147) 4. 15, p . 01. Follow-up repeated measures ANOVAs for visual information found that visual information had significant main effects on affective F(1, 149) 7. 73, p . 01, 2 0. 04 and cognitive attitudes F(1, 149) 11. 63, p . 1, 2 0. 07, thus supporting H1a and H1b. Purchase intention was not related to visual information, thus failing to support H2. Subsequent ANOVAs for verbal information indicated that amount of verbal information had significant main effects on affective F(1, 149) 23. 50, p . 0001, 2 0. 13 and cognitive attitudes F(1, 149) 289. 57, p . 0001, 2 0. 70. Purchase intention was also significantly related to the amount of verbal information F(1, 149) 7. 64, p . 01, 2 0. 04. H3a, H3b, and H4 positing the main effects of verbal information on dependent variables were all supported.Follow up ANOVAs were further conducted for interactions (see Figure 2). Results indicated that visual by verbal interaction effects were significant for cognitive attitudes F(1, 149) 9. 68, p . 01, 2 0. 05 and purchase intentions F(1, 149) 3. 95, p . 05, 2 0. 02. Simple effects tests revealed that the effect of visual information on cognitive attitudes was significant F(1, 149) 17. 30, p . 0001 only when the amount of verbal information was low. When the amount of verbal information was low, participants who viewed the large picture exhibited more positive cognitive attitudes (M 18. 6, SD 4. 68) than those who viewed the small picture (M 16. 92, SD 4. 70). This difference was larger when the amount of verbal information was low instead than when the amount of verbal information was high. The effect of verbal information on cognitive attitudes was significant both when picture size was large F(1, 149) 182. 81, p . 0001 and small F(1, 149) 268. 20, p . 0001. Data supported H5b, but not H5a. Simple effects tests further indicated that the effect of visual information on purchase intention was significant when the amount of verbal information was low F(1, 149) 5. 9, p . 05 (see Figure 2). When the amount of verbal information was low, participants who viewed large pictures (M 7. 05, SD 3. 08) exhibited stronger purchase intentions than those who viewed small pictures (M 6. 50, SD 2. 81). Simple effects tests also indicated that the effect of verbal information on purchase intention was significant when small pictures were used F(1, 149) 10. 52, p . 01. When exposed to small pictures, participants who received more verbal information (M 7. 30, SD 3. 08) expressed stronger purchase intentions than those who received less verbal information (M 6. 0, SD 2. 81). H6 was thus supported. 164 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar 24 23. 32 22. 97 Purchase Intentions 7. 3 7. 2 7. 30 7. 23 7. 05 Verbal Info High Low Cognitive Attitudes 22 Verbal Info 20 18. 36 18 16. 92 High Low 7. 1 7. 0 6. 9 6. 8 6. 7 6. 6 16 Large Small 6. 5 Large 6. 50 Small Picture Size Picture Size Figure 2. Visual by verbal interaction. H7 and H8 posited that visual information varied by picture size would explain more variance in attitudes and pur chase intentions than verbal information.Omega form ( A2) was used to assess the relative importance of each of the independent variables. According to Cohens (1977) guidelines, 2 0. 15 is a large effect, 2 0. 06 is a medium effect, and 2 0. 01 is a small effect. As shown in Table 2, verbal information had a larger effect on attitudes than visual information. Contrary to prediction of H7, verbal information accounted for 13% of the total variance in affective attitudes, whereas 4% was accounted for by visual information. For cognitive attitudes, verbal information accounted for 10 times more variance than visual information ( 2 0. 0 vs. 2 0. 07) in cognitive attitudes. In regards to purchase intention, verbal information had a moderate effect on purchase intention ( 2 0. 04), whereas visual information did not have a significant effect. countersign The present study examined how different presentation formats in Internet shopping influence consumer attitudes toward the product and subsequent purchase intention. Extending visual and verbal research in advertising into the Internet shopping context, this study investigated the effects of visual and verbal information on consumer responses.Table 2. Comparisons of Effects ( Experiment 2. 2 A ) of Visual and Verbal Information in Visual by verbal interaction ns 0. 05 0. 02 Visual information Affective attitude Cognitive attitude Purchase intention 0. 04 0. 07 ns Verbal information 0. 13 0. 70 0. 04 THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar 165 Table 3. heavyset of Experiment 1 and 2. Experiment 2 (within-subjects design) MANOVA Visual Sig. ** Sig. ** ns Verbal Sig. **** Sig. **** Sig. **Experiment 1 (between-subjects design) MANOVA Visual Affective attitudes Cognitive attitudes Purchase intentions *p . 05. **p . 01. ***p . 001. ****p . 0001. Regression Perceived visual Sig. **** Sig. * Sig. **** Perceived verbal Sig. **** Sig. **** Sig. **** Verbal Sig. * S ig. **** ns ns ns ns As summarized in Table 3, the findings showed that both visual and verbal information have significant effects on consumers affective and cognitive attitudes toward apparel products. However, only verbal information had a significant effect on purchase intention.One noteworthy finding is that when consumer perceptions of picture size and the amount of verbal information were used instead of actual picture size and amount of verbal information, both visual and verbal information significantly influenced both affective and cognitive attitudes and also impact purchase intentions. The findings further support verbal superiority in product presentation in Internet shopping. This is contrary to the predicted visual superiority based on previous literature supporting picture superiority and need for sensory evaluation for apparel products.Although it was anticipated that visual information would have stronger effects on consumer attitudes toward apparel products, espe cially affective responses, and purchase intentions, the results of the study suggest verbal superiority for both attitudes (affective and cognitive) and purchase intention. Based on the guidelines for effect sizes ( 2) of Cohen (1977), it was spy that verbal information had large effects for both affective and cognitive attitudes and had a moderate effect on purchase intention.Although both visual and verbal information had significant effects on affective attitudes, visual information had a weaker impact on affective attitudes than verbal information. In regards to cognitive attitudes, both visual and verbal information influenced cognitive attitudes, and verbal information had a stronger impact on cognitive attitudes as expected. The effect of visual information on cognitive attitudes was significant only when the amount of verbal information was low and it was a medium effect. Regarding purchase intentions, verbal information had a significant effect only when small pictures we re used, and it was a small effect.Although the findings of verbal superiority were unexpected, the findings of the study are generally consistent with findings in Smith (1991). In an 166 KIM AND LENNON Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar advertising context, Smith found that the effect of visual information was ascendant only when visual information conveys different messages from verbal claims. When both visual and verbal information conveyed the same message, Smith found that inferences based on visual stimuli were weaker than inferences based on verbal claims due to higher uncertainty associated with visual stimuli.Verbal information in an ad makes explicit, specific claims about product attributes or performance, which facilitate inferences about unknown information about a product. On the contrary, claims made using visual information tend to be less explicit and less specific, which is likely to result in a heightened uncertainty of inferences. Thus, in the present study , it is possible that the effect of visual information was lessened compared to verbal information because both visual and verbal stimuli conveyed the same messages about the product to some extent, especially for style information and construction details.In addition, the way visual and verbal stimuli were manipulated in this study may have contributed to the stronger effects of verbal information than visual information. For visual stimuli, picture size was manipulated such that a small picture was one-fourth of a large picture. Despite the size difference, the same pictures were used. However, for verbal stimuli, the amount of verbal information was manipulated such that a low verbal condition did not include four pieces of intrinsic information that were provided in the high verbal condition.Therefore, the difference between high and low verbal conditions (i. e. , absence of information) may be larger than the difference between visual condition groups, resulting in larger effec ts of verbal information. Indeed, visual information had a significant impact on both affective and cognitive attitudes, albeit weaker effects than verbal information. Another plausible explanation of the findings of the study is that mayhap verbal product information used in this study evoked imagery information processing in addition to discursive information processing because of concrete verbal stimuli (e. . , construction details of apparel). Imagery processing can be bring on by a number of external sources. Pictures are the most well-known predictor of imagery (Paivio, 1971 Shepard, 1967). The superiority of visual information has been attributed to the imagery induced by visual information as compared to discursive information processing by verbal information (Childers & Houston, 1984 Lutz & Lutz, 1977 Paivio, 1971). In addition to pictures, concrete verbal stimuli can stimulate imagery processing (Paivio & Csapo, 1973 Paivio & Foth, 1970 Richardson, 1980).The level of the concreteness of words was found to be significantly related to the level of imagery value (Pavio, Yuille, & Madigan, 1968). Paivio (1971) also posited that the verbal superiority of high imagery values can occur. In this study, the difference between high and low verbal conditions was the amount of product information, especially intrinsic product information including construction/style details, fit, fiber/fabric information, and care instructions. THE EFFECTS OF VISUAL AND VERBAL INFORMATION ON ATTITUDES Psychology & Marketing DOI 10. 1002/mar 167In particular, construction details and style information provide concrete information about apparel products (e. g. , the pointed thieve and barrel cuffs, pearl buttons for front closure, move shirt bottom, and single chest soap two layers of silk with a sheer top, a pattern of slender roses with delicate, thorny stems in deep brown and green, transparent seeded player and bugle beads across the top(prenominal) layer). Such verbal i nformation may have led participants to engage in imagery information processing as well as discursive information processing evoked by other verbal messages.Additionally, previous research supports that the effects of visual and verbal stimuli are synergetic in such a way that the addition of verbal stimuli that explains the message conveyed by visual stimuli enhances the use of imagery processing (Bower, Karlin, & Dueck, 1975 Childers & Houston, 1984). Concrete verbal descriptions of style information and construction details of apparel items may have helped participants interpret the picture of the item and thus may have bear on imagery processing. These interpretations may explain why verbal information had stronger effects on both affective and cognitive attitudes.The concept of perceptual fluency provides useful insights to interpret the findings of the study. Concrete verbal descriptions used in this study are likely to improve perceptual fluency (e. g. , the ease of identi fying the physical identity of the stimulus). The availability of concrete verbal infor